It is worth noting that the posts created by the Emperor Diocletian (who gained power in 284 CE) were generally filled not by senators, but by equestrians. It was in the third century that the already declining pre-eminence of Italy may be deemed extinguished.

The new social order was beginning to develop as early as 212 CE, when Caracalla granted citizenship to all freeborn in the empire. What arose was a legal distinction between honestiores and humiliores.

Honestiores included senators, decurions, lawyers, civil servants, soldiers, and the like. Although neither new rank was ever clearly defined, honestiores might be compared to early Roman citizens.

Humiliores, then, were everyone else. They were considered a lower class, as peregrini - foreigners - had been in the early empire.

The distinction was important. The greatest punishment honestiores could suffer in normal circumstances was deportation and loss of property. Humiliores were much worse off, as they could be tortured. Indeed, it was customary to torture both the accused and any witnesses, if they were humiliores, in most criminal trials and even in civil trials on occasion.

Legislation enacted by Diocletian and later emperors bound humiliores to their land or trade.


Potter, T.W., and Johns, Catherine. Roman Britain. ©2002 Barnes & Noble Books, New York.