History is full of women who stepped outside of the box. The box that was full of tradition, moral values, and expectations of behavior for women. These women are often viewed as scandalous, immoral, outrageous, or more often evil. In doing so, the woman risked everything for a possible great reward. She risked social sanctions. She risked being ostracized. Worse yet, she risked death.
Wu Zhao was such a woman. As Empress of China, she challenged traditional roles of women, but she behaved in ways specifically reserved for male rulers.
Confucius and his teachings heavily influenced the social structure of most Asia. China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam all based many of their social precepts upon the thoughts of this philosopher as a base for their codes of behavior and stratification.
It was during the Han Dynasty (206 – 200 BCE), that China fully adopted Confucianism as the official government state doctrine and was taught in the official state curriculum. To Confucius, women were low on the social status pyramid and to have a woman rule as a monarch would be as unnatural as “a hen crowing like a rooster at daybreak”.
The natural order to be followed was the “ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife. The woman was to follow the five constant virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and sincerity. This was also compounded by the three obediences to obey her father before marriage, her husband during marriage and her son during widowhood. And if that wasn’t enough, the four virtues were implemented in order to protect the family honor: woman’s fidelity, physical charm, propriety in speech and proficiency with the needle.
As “Neo-Confucians” continued to study throughout the subsequent dynasties, a more pronounced male authority rose and patrilineal customs became the norm. Women were subordinated to a lower position than men and this subservience was thought to be the natural order of the universe. Ideas of husband worship, a gift from the invading Mongols, and wife fidelity produced the egregious practices of foot binding which exemplifies the need to limit a woman’s ability to be mobile.
These thoughts were reinforced by the ancient Chinese version of self –help books. Prescriptive manuals designed to give advice for proper behavior. One such book written by a female historian, Ban Zhao (Han Dynasty, 45-120 CE) give the reader an open window the Chinese culture at the time: “Yield to others; let her put others first, herself last.”
At the beginning of the Tang dynasty (618-765), a cultural revolution occurred. Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin) implemented improvements in all aspects of Chinese life. From politics, economics, culture and foreign relations, he focused on improvement of life for all subjects, not just the ruling class. Women were allowed to be economically independent and were also allowed to be educated in philosophy, culture art and social ethics. Divorce became allowable is it was a mutual and peaceful process.
During this period of social revolution, Wu Zhao was born to a merchant class family in the Shanxi province. At the age of 14, she was called to serve the Emperor and entered his palace as a Cairen or fifth grade concubine. Although Wu Zhao (named Mei Niang by the emperor at that time – meaning “charming and lovely”) never found sexual favor with the Emperor, she served as his loyal secretary for 12 years, learning the fine intricacies of politics, policies and foreign affairs. This knowledge would serve her well in the second phase of her life.
In the year 649, the Emperor died and his son Gaozong (Li Dan) was installed as ruler. As tradition dictated, once the Emperor died, all of his concubines could never remarry and were sent away to a nunnery for the rest of their lives. Mei was 26 years old. However, Gaozong had become infatuated with Mei and began visiting her at the nunnery. Within three years of the Emperor Taizong’s death, Mei was returned to the palace to become a Zhaoyi, a second grade concubine to the new Emperor.
Life as a concubine could be wrought with peril and politics and Mei soon began competing for power and influence within the court. She gave birth to two sons to the Emperor Gaozong , which garnered her much favor in the eyes of the Emperor. Empress Wang and the senior concubine, Xiaoshu, quickly found Mei to be a threat to the position. Upon the death of Mei’s daughter, Mei quickly placed the blame on Empress Wang. It has been said that Mei herself killed her own daughter in order to accuse the Empress of such atrocity. Empress Wang was disgraced and Mei was promoted to the position of Empress in her place.
As Empress, Mei had hands and feet of the former Empress and the concubine Xiashu amputated. They were then placed in a vat of vine with their legs and arms tied together and left to drown. So began the rule of Mei – now called Empress Wu Zhao.She did not hesitate to remove any political rivals by execution or trumped up charges in the legal field. Her philosophy to deal with a wild horse in the stables was to beat it with an iron whip. If that didn’t work, then kill it. So was her philosophy to ensure her rule.
Emperor Gaozong’s health was frail for most of his rule and as his health failed, Empress Wu gained more and more political power. By 650, Gaozong suffered a debilitating stroke, leaving him Emperor in name only. She controlled policy for the national infrastructure, including new ideas in agriculture, tax reduction, social reforms and effective labor saving practices. Although she was forward thinking in social policy, she also did not hesitate to remove her political rivals, including friends and family, with a fervor unnerving for a woman of the time. Administrators opposing her were removed from office and exiled or forced to commit suicide.
Upon Gaozong’s death in 656, Wu’s third son, Li Xian ascended the throne to become Emperor Zhongzong. When he became difficult to control, Wu Zhao overthrew him in favor of her fourth son, Li Dan – Emperor Ruizong. By 690, Wu Zhao completely took the throne and declared herself Emperor and declaring it the dynasty of Zhao – the dynasty of “light of the sun and the moon illuminating every corner of the land”.
Although Wu’s methods in attaining power were ruthless, she proved a skilled ruler. She drew government officials from talented people, regardless of their social station at birth and instituted the personal interview. This guaranteed that appointments could no longer be obtained through nepotism, patronage, bribery or corruption. Oddly enough, she was known to listen to her critics, as long as they did not present to be a political opponent and she rewarded those who offered sound advice and initiative. She commissioned agricultural developments to increase productivity and directed the creation of farming manuals. As farm production increased, she reduced taxes and allowed the peasant population to keep more of their produce.
No matter how much good a ruler can do, there is always a negative aspect to their rule. Wu could be a sadistic despot if she could a hint of disloyalty. Wu appointed cruel officials to eliminate any opposition to her rule, putting any innocent people to death until she was satisfied her administration was secure. She resorted to Buddhism later in life and built temples and monuments for the religion. This placed a huge burden on state resources and labor. At the end of her life, she kept her own harem of men for her own pleasure.
At the end of her life in 698, Wu allowed Li Xian to be reinstated as Crown Prince. By the year 705, Wu was overthrown in a palace coup that included the wholesale slaughter of her male harem. Li Xian ascended the throne once again as Emperor Zhongzong and restored the Tang Dynasty. At that point, Wu was given the title “Zetian” which is the Supreme Empress.
Wu Zetian died at the age of 82 and was buried next to her Emperor Gaozong in present day Xi’an City. Her gravestone, a plain slab, unmarked by any eulogy was placed there by her request. She desired those who studied her in the future generations decide upon her own legacy: A woman of strength and character or a cruel usurper in search of absolute power.
Bibliography
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“Gender Difference in History Women in China and Japan” Social Education. NCSS, March 2003.
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Women’s and Gender History in Global Perspective: East Asia, American Historical Association, Washington, DC.
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Tang Dynasty – Empress Wu Zetian (624-705). 2004. TravelChinaGuide.com, September 10, 2004, www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/tang/emperor_wuzetian/htm.
