THE PASSION OF PERPETUA
by Lucius Aelius

The martyrdom of Blandina is presented in the Historia Ecclesiastica of Eusebius, who quotes from an encyclical letter written by the Christian communities in Lyons and Vienne, recounting the persecutions which occurred there in AD 177. It was a time of plague and war, and there was a xenophobic prejudice against the Christians of these towns, many of whom were immigrants from Asia Minor, where Cybele (Mater Magna) was venerated. Prohibited from appearing in public places and subject to abuse and imprisonment, the Christians of Lyons eventually were interrogated in the forum by the tribune. Those who confessed to being Christians and did not save themselves by renouncing their faith were horribly tortured and finally condemned to the beasts of the amphitheater. Blandina, a slave girl, was the last to die. Hung upside down from a cross, she was exposed to the wild animals, but they would not attack. Repeatedly tortured, she eventually was entangled in a net and thrown to a bull.

Martyrs often were idealized as combatants, the spectacle of the arena transposed to the martyr's struggle with Satan, and Eusebius uses this imagery, himself, in speaking of Blandina: “A small, weak, despised woman, who had put on Christ, the great invincible champion, and in bout after bout had defeated her adversary and through conflict had won the crown of immortality.”

The archetype of all later acts of the Christian martyrs is the passion (passio) of Perpetua. A well-born women of Carthage, she was arrested. “A few days later we were lodged in the prison; and I was terrified, as I had never been in such a dark hole. What a difficult time it was! With the crowd the heat was stifling; then there was the extortion of the soldiers; and to crown all, I was tortured with worry for my baby there.” While in prison, where she was baptized and had given birth, she kept a diary. The night before she was to die in the arena, she dreamed that she fought with a diabolic Egyptian and defeated him before Christ, her heavenly trainer (lanista), and walked victorious through the Porta Sanavivaria (Gate of Life). She awoke, knowing that she would triumph the next day. “So much for what I did up until the eve of the contest,” she records. “About what happened at the contest itself, let him write of it who will.”

A Christian spectator did record the events of that day. As an additional humiliation, Perpetua and her maid-servant Felicitas were to be dressed as the priestesses of Ceres, which they refused. Like Blandina, they were placed in nets to be trampled to death. In her passion, Perpetua did not even realize her ordeal until she saw that her tunic had been torn and the marks on her body. Later, in the center of the arena, she waited with the others for the thrust of the sword and “took the trembling hand of the young gladiator and guided it to her throat.”

Perpetua died in March AD 203 as part of the birthday celebration of Geta. Both the martyr and the emperor were 22 years old.

References:
Pagans and Christians (1986) by Robin Lane Fox;
Eusebius: The History of the Church (1965) translated by G. A. Williamson;
The Acts of the Christian Martyrs (1972) by Herbert Musurillo

ORIGINS, FORMS AND USE OF MITHRAISM, IN COMPARISON TO CHRISTIANITY
by Tanaquil Sergius

Relief image of Mithras killing the Bull (i.e. tauroctony), flanked by his helpers Cautes and Cautopates.

Introduction

The cult of this god is one of the most popular known to Antiquity, both esoteric and exoteric. The cult, being of origin from the Near East, had numerous worshippers during the time of the Roman Empire: initiates and non-initiates. In the 3rd and 4th century A.D., Mithracism managed to maintain next to the fast growing and very popular movement of Christianity. For a time, Mithracism and Christianity were serious rivals. The cult of Mithracism, during the time of the Roman Empire, was set up as a philosophical, mystic school, organized in small, autonomous fraternities. There are some striking resemblances to Christian religious beliefs and actions. This article will deal with some of them and simultaneously will try to show that, how ancient this eastern religion may be, it can still appeal to modern man today.

The origins of Mithras and his cult

The earliest date of the name "Mithras" goes back to about 1400 B.C. It refers to a find from 1907 at Boghazköy in Turkey. This site was the former capital of the Hittite Empire. The find is a clay tablet with the name "Mitra" on it. On the tablet, Mitra is called upon together with the god of the heavens as protector of a treaty made by the Hittites and their neighbours, the Mitanni.

The latest date of the name "Mithras" is from the 5th century A.D. In this case Mithras is referred to as the god as he is worshipped during the time of the Roman Empire.

The major problem in studying the cult of Mithras, is the gap in the material that was passed on to us from Antiquity. The sources confine themselves to written/literary sources merely dealing with Mithracism in the Near East, and mostly archaeological data dealing with the cult during the days of the Roman Empire.

Form the written sources from the Near East cannot be concluded that there has been some kind of mystic worship of the god in that area. The archaeological data from the Roman Empire only give information about a mystic form of religion. The resemblances between the god of the Near East and the Roman Empire mainly refer to the god's character.

The treaty of +/- 1400 B.C. proves that Mithras was known to the Hittites and the Mitanni in the Bronze Age and early Iron age. Ancient books of Iran and India also refer to the person of Mithras. He is often cited in the Indian holy Vedas, where he is called "Mitra", a name meaning "treaty". In the ancient Persian Avesta he is called "Mithra", a name meaning "friend, ally". In the Avesta, a special hymn, a Yasht, is dedicated to him. Both in the Vedas and in the Avesta, Mitra/Mithra has the same characteristics as Varuna (the Indian sun god) and Ahura Mazda (the Persian sun god). But as well in the Vedas as in the Avesta several different periods must be distinguished: they contain very old parts and more recent ones. In all the different passages, Mitra/Mithra plays another role, varying from important to only marginal. In some periods of early Indian and Persian history, Mithras and his cult were so popular, that he was considered even more important than the god of heaven.

To understand Mithra's position in ancient Iran, a study of the Persian world of divinity must be made. This divine world was separated into two main sections: one around Ahura Mazda (the all knowing Lord, Ruler of the Realm of Light) and one around his opponent Ahriman, the god of Darkness. Both groups of divinities are in an everlasting struggle, but eventually Goodness is bound to overcome the powers of Darkness. In the struggle of Goodness and Evil, Mithra playes the part of the Yazata, a helpmate. He fights for the cause of Ahura Mazda, of Goodness and Justice. Mithra is a god of Light. In India he probably was considered equal to the sun god. In the Avesta, Mithra shows to be a god with a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes, with which he hears and sees all that is happening on Earth. Because of his many senses he also turns out to be an avenger, protecting the just people and fighting against all wrongness and evil. That makes him to be a god on his own, very popular and separately worshipped in ancient Iran, but on the other hand, he remains strongly connected to Ahura Mazda, whose servant and helpmate he is.

In the Persian divine hierarchy, Mithra is surrounded and helped by divine powers, lesser holy than himself. Especially two lesser gods are important, which can also be seen as two vital aspects of Mithra, Sraosa and Asi. In the Mithras cult of the Roman Empire these two figures probably live on as the two most important helpmates of Mithras: Cautes and Cautopates.

To get a picture of the power and popularity of the Persian Mithra, a study of the more recent parts of the Avesta is worth while.

In the Indian Vedas Mitra is the helpmate of Varuna, the god of heaven. As such, he is called "the Eye of Varuna". As well as in the Avesta, the link between Mitra and and the bull is described in the Vedas, and here the link seems to be even more important. In the later mystic cult of Mithras this link has been worked out in the myth of the killing of the bull by Mithras. to prove that this myth goes back to a period as early as the writing of the Vedas, Prof. H. Lommel collected from these scriptures a number of passages dealing with the killing of a bull by the god Mitra. The most important myth from the Vedas dealing with the subject is the so called myth of Soma. The myth begins with the god of life, Soma (this being is compared to Haoma, the juice of a plant, drunk in ancient Iran to gain immortality and strongly connected with the Persian cult of Mithra). Soma is a rain, coming from the moon, making all vegetables grow and providing food for man and animal. After death, every kind of life on earth returns to the moon. When the moon is rising, the life-giving Soma is collected as in a bowl. Soma, the life-giving water of heaven is regarded as the semen coming from the heavenly bull, but also as the nurturing milk coming from the all-feeding, heavenly cow. We have to bare in mind that these descriptions in the Vedas refer to the tradition of some kind of symbolic language.

The Soma is, like nectar, an immortality potion. Because of this, the gods aim to get this potion for their own use. In order to achieve this, they plan to kill the bull Soma. They also try to get Mitra into their conspiracy and make him to be the one who does the actual killing:

The gods spoke to Mitra, the god who's name means "friend":

They, on their turn spoke: "We still aim to kill him."

As a result of this, Mitra joins the conspiracy, because he is promised an equal share in the offerings, but he risks to lose his cattle by doing this, for the cattle turn their back on him and say: "Despite of being the friend of all, he has done a horrible thing."

Even the supreme divinity, Varuna, takes part in the killing of Soma, who is slain with a stone. In the Indian Varuna/Mitra cult, the juice of the Soma plant was gained by pressing it out with a stone. In ancient times people believed to gain immortality by drinking the juice of plants or fruits, which were said to be life-giving. This use of potion-drinking became a very important part in the rituals of all later mystic cults and religions. Examples are the drinking of the blood of a bull in the Mithraeic initiation rites, the drinking of wine in the cult of Dionysos and the drinking of wine/blood of Christ in Christianity. The neophyte drinks the potion that is referred to as a life-giving drink. Still the neophyte will die, but his death will not be the end of all, but the start of a new, immortal life. On the other hand, just as in the myth of Soma, every neophyte is referred to as a victim of sacrifice; he has to die symbolically to obtain eternal life.

Therefore, the hymns of the Vedas provide the picture of a god, who was predestined to become a mystic god during the time of the Roman Empire. He was not the only one. Almost every mystic god or goddess of the Roman Empire originally came from the Near East, where people used to be on a very intense level with their gods and goddesses. This proves to be the most important issue in relation to the popularity of mystic cults in the Roman Empire, in comparison to the severe and non-personal State religion of the twelve Olympians. This issue has been a motive in favor of the mystic cults since the Hellenistic Age.

The arrival of Mithras in Europe

The circumstances under which Mithracism eventually came from Iran to Europe, can be called strange. Plutarch, a Greek historian from the 1st century A.D., writes that the Romans first got the acquaintance with the phaenomenon of Mithras through pirates from Cilicia in Asia Minor. These pirates were such a threat to the sea faring nations of the Mediterranean, thet they were an important issue within the internal political struggles in Rome. The Roman politician and general Pompey undertook several expeditions (78-67 B.C.) against the pirates and eventually succeeded in expelling this threat from the waves of the Mediterranean. This event provided Pompey great popularity (he gained the epithet "The Great") and a very solid political position in Rome. In his biography of Pompey, Plutarch refers to the pirates and their worship of a special god:

"They (i.e. the pirates) made special sacrifices on Mt. Olympus in Lycia (i.e. in Asia Minor) and performed some mystic acts and rituals, of which the service of Mithras has remained even up to this very day, which has been brought into the open by them (i.e. the pirates) for the first time."

The historian Appian (2nd century A.D.) states that these pirates had taken over the mystic cult of Mithras from the remaining troops of Mithridates Eupator's defeated army. Mithridates had been king of Pontus (on the coast of the Black Sea). In some countries in Asia Minor, certain kings used to call themselves and family members "Mithridates", which means: "given by/a gift of Mithras", referring to an old form of worshipping Mithras. In Mithridates' army many people of the Near East had served as mercenaries. Maybe even the pirates of Cilicia had done so. In Cilicia, some monuments for Mithras have been found. The god was worshipped in Cilicia's capital Tarsos. Even in the 3rd century A.D., the Roman emperor Gordianus III had coins slain in Tarsos with the head of Mithras on them.

Plutarch describes the pirates, who were defeated by Pompey, as practitioners of a mystic cult of Mithras. This could mean that the mystic cult of the god already existed, in some form, in the 1st century B.C. There are, however, no archaeological data found in that area of that particular period, referring to a clear mystic cult of Mithras. We must bear in mind that Plutarch wrote his work “Parallel Lives”, from which all our information comes, in the 1st century A.D. and described a passage on the banning of piracy, dating one century earlier. He probably projected his own, up to date vision on Mithracism on the time, when the pirates tortured the seafarers of the Mediterranean.

Even if there are slight evidences of an esoteric origin of Mithracism in the Near East, a mystic cult with a clear organization, a system of degrees and a hierarchic structure, corresponding to the degrees, emerges only at the end of the 1st and the beginning of the 2nd century A.D., in the Roman Empire. Nothing is known about any ritual or structural development between 50 A.D. and 100 A.D.

Today's information on Mithraeic rituals in the Roman Empire from after 100 A.D. gives the impression that we are dealing with a structural, ritual and philosophical established organization, geared for being followed by many men of all ranks and places. I am inclined to think that the mystic cult of Mithras around 100 A.D. is the exponent of a long tradition, in which the esoteric and exoteric aspects of the cult could develop themselves into a good working system.

Nevertheless, it took a very long time before the cult of Mithras was accepted in any form by the Roman authorities. Because of the popularity of the god all over the Mediterranean area, the cult is likely to have had lots of adepts in ancient Italy. This, however, was no argument for a sudden acceptation of the cult by the authorities. Only after it had become clear to them, that de adepts of Mithracism were no harmdoers to the establishment whatsoever (i.e. the polity, the state authority and the state religion) and that they would obey the imperial laws, a slow acceptation was to become possible. Apparently, this moment of acceptation had arrived during the reign of the emperor Trajan, about 100 A.D.

Worshippers and followers

One of the primal functions of Mithras is that of the warrior. He fights for the just cause, against all evil, and so should his adepts. The god's service as a helpmate and avenger is like the service of a loyal soldier. Thus the Mithraean, the initiated adept of the god, lived the life of a soldier, servant and helpmate to all. His earthly life represented one big symbolic military quest, a struggle for life and true manhood. It is only obvious that Mithracism had most of its followers from all the ranks and parts of the Roman army, even amongst the auxiliaries in all parts of ancient Europe. The already mentioned emperor Trajan, under who's reign Mithracism gained its final acceptation, had been a soldier all his life. The possibility may not be excluded that he himself was a follower of Mithras. However, no historical data exist on this point. The secrets were kept still very well....

For the Roman soldier, Mithraean or not, Mithras was a friend and a trusted ally in battle. The god was especially worshipped in military awkward situations. The war between Romans and Jews in Judaea (about 60-70 A.D.) under the command of Titus Vespasianus (the later emperor Titus), was for many Roman soldiers an awkward battle and a struggle to stay alive, comparable to the situation of many American combat soldiers in Vietnam, although the Romans were victorious in the end and many Jews ended up in captivity.

The trust in the help of a strong, divine warrior and the promise of an eternal life after death were aspects of Mithracism that put many men through this awkward situation. The same can be said about gladiators and other fighters in the arena and about slaves who had been convicted to life-lasting labour in the country. Death was their only prospect and their lives were nothing more than a struggling attempt to see the light of another day, a situation they hadn't asked for. All these people were attracted to the Mithraeic cult, and the positive thing about this cult was, that it was equally accessible for all men, whether they be emperor or slave.

Mithracism in the Roman Empire had two clearly divided aspects: the esoteric and the exoteric side. Those who didn't wish to go deeply into the religious-philosophic range of ideas in the cult, were free to bring sacrifices to the god, without having to be initiated. They were dealing with the superficial teachings of Mithracism, known to almost everyone, namely that life is a struggle, man is a fighter, and that Mithras fights for the good cause etcetera. Those who favoured the esoteric side of the cult and wanted to be initiated, didn't necessarily have to have had a good education, but some level of education and the urge to find the answers to vital questions in life was a request made to new candidates. The initiates formed a fraternity and their bond was very special; each fraternity or community didn't have more than 50 members. The acceptance of a new member therefore demanded a meticulous investigation into this person's character and intentions.

As a result of the acceptation of the cult in the Roman army camps, long before its acceptation by the Roman authorities, Mithracism was spread easily all through the empire.

However, the figure of the fighter for the good cause can be regarded metaphorically as well. Apart from soldiers and gladiators, peasants, merchants and other kinds of men were interested in the teachings and blessings of Mithracism. To live meant (and still means) to fight for survival, but also to try and find enrichment in life. Many cultivated persons all over the empire, therefore, were interested in the cult of Mithras and probably counted themselves amongst the initiates.

Mithracism and the dispute of masculinity

In Antiquity, a dispute like this didn't exist at all; it was not the issue. Male and female aspects of society were strictly devided. Men and women met together to reproduce the human race, but, on the whole, the cultures of men and women in an ancient society were very different. Men dwelled outside the house during daytime, women stayed inside. Men used to go to war as soldiers, women did not. To both men and women, it would have been ridicule if there, all of a sudden, had been female soldiers, in spite of mythical traditions of Pallas Athena as a warrior goddess and the stories of the Amazons, and the like.

Because of the division of male and female societies, there were mystic cult groups especially for men (i.e. Mithras) and for women (i.e. Bona Dea). None of these separate groups was allowed to gain any information on specific esoteric aspects of the other cult group. A third group of mystic cults, however, was open to both men and women( i.e. Isis and Dionysos) these cults consisted of rituals based on a myth dealing with the fertilizing union of man and woman, masculinity and femininity. Therefore, both men and women were essential parts of the rituals and thus allowed to be members of these cult groups. Cults as the ones of Mithras and Bona Dea are based on myths, in which this union aspect has no significant role or no role at all.

The myths of Mithras; degrees; initiations and initiatic hierarchy

The myths

Numerous myths are in circulation about the sun god Mithras, and they are based mainly on the position of the sun in the different signs of the Zodiac. I will discuss the two most important ones.

Mithras, like Apollo, Dionysos, Hermes, Zeus and Jesus, was born in a cave, his mother was a virgin. Hence the resemblance to the birth of Christ, who is said to have been born on December 24th, in a cave or stable, with a virgin as his mother. In fact, these aspects of the myth of Christ have been directly derived from the myth of Mithras.

Mithras, born out of a rock, in a cave with the zodiac around his head

It is therefore, that a Mithraeic temple, called Mithraeum, originally had the shape of a grotto or cave. The cave is an archetype for the conception of "being enclosed", which we recognize, in a different form, in the womb and in the vault of heaven, and in consequence in the domed church. The dark chamber in masonic temple buildings can also represent a cave, in which the candidate is born. Some masonic temple rooms have a vaulted ceiling as well. The cave is the symbol of the Zodiac sign of the Capricorn, in which the sun nears the southern solstice, at the beginning of the winter, in the darkest time of the year, the time of the liquidation of the old matter in nature,in which spiritual introspection reaches its peak, in which a new man/woman is born. Then the cave is also a symbol of fixed, material form, in which inner, spiritual life grows, and at the same time of the underworld, from which new life, initially still enclosed by the earth, springs up. And as a symbol of this underworld the serpent is seen to appear on the scene here.

Two Mithraea, showing the grotto structure: the Mithraeum below the San Clemente in Rome (left) and the one in Capua (right)

The master of Capricorn is Saturn or Kronos, in mythology the son of Ouranos, creator of heaven, and Gaia, goddess of Earth. Kronos had therefore grown out of heaven and earth, out of spirit and matter, and became the creator of mankind, the first mortal beings, in contrast to the gods, who were eternal. Human beings were mortal forms of revealed existence.

Therefore, Saturn/Kronos was the master of time, which is bound exclusively by the changing forms of matter. This is why in the first stage we find Mithras depicted as a Kronos-figure, entwined with a serpent and with a lion's head on his heart, because here we are concern with the sun-god and the sun is the ruler of the Zodiac sign Leo, the Lion. Sometimes we also find him with a lion's head on his own head. These images were found in reliefs, murals and paintings in Mithraeic temples. So far the first myth.

The second myth is that of the killing of the bull. Here we have to remember for a moment the killing myth that is recorded in the Vedas, where the gods killed King Soma, the heavenly bull, and the actual killing was done by Mitra. The killing myth in Mithracism deals with the stage at which the sun is in the sign of Taurus, the Bull, in April, the month of the budding of the first leaves, preceding blossom time. The bull is the special symbol of fertilization and therefore the stage of the Bull is the time when the sun begins its activity of fertilizing the earth, causing the first growth of vegetation. The sun-god, who identifies himself with the Bull, sends his beams, hist best forces, down to earth, so as to cause it to blossom; it could be said that he sacrifices himself for the earth. This is symbolized in the myth which tells how the sun god Mithras fights the Bull and kills it. Mithras forces the Bull down to earth, sits on it, pulls its head upward with his left hand and with his right hand plunges a dagger into the animals heart. The bull's blood fertilizes the earth ans 55 cereals and 12 medicinal herbs grow out of its carcass. This representation, in different forms, is also found in all Mithraeic temples, mostly as the central image (e.g., on the altar).

Another interpretation of the killing of the Bull is based on the theory that the Bull might represent the evil of the universe. In this case, Mithras is simply represented as the warrior who is summoned by the universal sun-god to kill the evil of the world. In doing this, he is helped by the Crow and the Lion. Out of the blood and the semen of the Bull, awkward creatures come out of the earth, as soon as the blood has fallen down to it (like the scorpion).

Egyptian influences in Mithracism (probably acquaintances with the mystic religion of Serapis) introduced Serapis, the Egyptian bull-god, into the Mithraeic temples, but this god is alien to the original Mithraeic cult.

Small sized images of Mithras/Kronos and representations of the killing of the Bull have been found in large numbers outside the Mithraeic temples, which could mean that these stood in the houses of the followers of Mithras, like the image of the Virgin Mary or the crucifix was and is in the houses of Christians.

Initiations and degrees

The mystic cult of Mithras had a system of degrees for its adepts. This system had seven degrees and these symbolized a gradual path of seven stages to a symbolic spiritual perfection. The subsequent order of the Mithraeic degrees is known very well, as is the shape of the temples where the initiations took place.

Little is known with certainty, however, about the details of the work in the temple. No explicit ritual texts have remained and we might ask the question if they have ever been written down at all. The rites had to remain strictly secret, nothing was allowed to be told or recorded. It is true that pictures have been found of the myths around Mithras and even pictures dealing with some ritual performances, but these leave us in the dark as to the texts used, the number and the sequence of these performances, so we have to confine ourselves to a general survey of the rite and the performances of the several degrees. What is certain is, that initiations took place in seven degrees, and that there were four seasonal celebrations: the two days of the solstitia and the two days of the equinoctes. Further, the number 7 played a very important role in the Mithraeic rite. This number seven was derived from the seven planets known to Antiquity, and the seven celestial spheres. In the seven initiations the candidate was considered each time to have passed through one of the celestial spheres and so each time to have attained higher consciousness, until, after he had passed the seventh celestial sphere, he had reached full consciousness.

These initiations aimed especially at the development of many virtues, such as valor, steadfastness, faith, generosity, devotion, humility, integrity, discipline and devoutness. This can be seen especially in the journeys or circumambulations, which numbered seven for each initiation and were always made sunwise. The point of a dagger or sword was placed on the candidate's chest, he had to kill an animal and was confronted, in semi-darkness, with all kinds of frightening phaenomena, like fire, water, thunder, lightning, crossbones, skeletons, apparitions of wild animals (imitated by members of the fraternity in shape and sound); he also had to overcome all kinds of difficulties: stumbling, climbing, jumping, falling, etcetera. And these proceedings were not exactly mild.

As for the degrees, each degree stood under the protection of a planet. Every degree had its specific clothes, colours and characteristic features. Of recognition passwords or signs nothing is known. The oldest data about the degrees are from the 2nd century A.D. Maybe seven degrees were known before that time, or maybe less, but nothing is certain about that. Some have thought that the number of the degrees was made seven because of the seven planets and celestial spheres. They found out that some degrees might be older than others: the Crow and the Lion might be the oldest degrees, because these animals appear next to Mithras in the myth of the killing of the Bull, in which they are his helpmates.

The novice first went to a preliminary initiation and was then called Chrysius or "hidden one". Later, probably with a number of other candidates, he was initiated in the 1st degree. Those initiated in the lowest three degrees of the seven were servants who were not allowed to officiate at the rite and who had to serve at the ritual meals; those in the highest four degrees held the offices and participated in the meals. In each fraternity or community, usually not numbering more than 50 members, there was only one initiated in the 7th degree, he who was in charge of all the work in the temple.

The 1st degree was that of the Corax/Corvus or Raven. According to the myth it was a raven which brought Mithras the sun-god's command to kill the Bull. The raven therefore was a messenger of the gods, a Mercury figure; the Corax was under the protection of Mercury and his emblems were the caduceus and a cup. The meaning of the cup is still not known, but it could have referred to the drinking of the Hoama. When in function as a raven in the temple, the man with this degree wore a raven's mask. The ceremony of initiation in the 1st degree, the so called Coracina Sacra, made the initiate into a sacred raven.

The 2nd degree was that of the Nymphus or Bride. These male brides were united with Mithras in a mystic marriage, which, however, had no effect on the normal, civil marriage. The Nymphus held a torch or lamp and wore a crown.; his emblem was the bridal veil, sometimes also a mirror. He was under the protection of Venus.

The third degree was that of the Miles or Soldier. He was the fighter for his invincible god, his deus invictus. Sometimes, Mithras was put on the same level as the Roman god Sol Invictus during the period of the Roman Empire. Because he was a fighter the Miles had to make a warrior's vow and a stigma was burned into his forehead. He wore brown clothes and had a helmet, lance and a military bag. He was under the protection of Mars. In this degree, particular emphasis was laid on strict discipline, devoutness and integrity. During his initiation a laurel wreath was tendered to him on the point of a sword: this was to put his humility to the test, for he was expected to refuse it, saying that victory was not yet reached and that he did not yet feel himself worthy of it.

The 4th degree, or first high degree, was that of Leo or the Lion. During the rite he was dressed in a fiery-red cloak, the tails of which were borne by soldiers. He wore a lion's mask and was under the protection of Jupiter. His emblems were a fire-shovel, the rattle (borrowed from the cult of Isis) and thunderbolts (from Jupiter). During his initiation there was a washing of the hands with water and a washing of the tongue with honey: the purification of the candidate's deeds and words. It seems that he also had to undergo a baptism of fire, the details of which, however, are unknown.

The 5th degree was that of the PersesPersian, obviously borrowed from the old Persian origin of this cult. The Persian was under the protection of the Moon and represented the keeper of fertility, which falls under the Moon. The sperma of the Bull comes under the moon, as does all fruit and also honey. The Persian's emblems were the sickle and the scythe, for reaping corn that had grown out of the Bull's carcass and the earth, fertilized by his blood. In the rite of initiation there was also a washing of the hands with water and of the tongue with honey.

The 6th degree was that of the Heliodromus or Sun-runner. He was thought to form the connection between the Earth and the Sun-god and therefore to ride through heaven in a chariot of victory, drawn by four horses, harnessed side by side, representing the four elements, which played a role in the rites as well. The Sun-runner was dressed in a red oriental cloak with yellow belt and in his left hand held a blue globe, representing the celestial spheres.He was under the protection of the Sun. His emblems were the whip, the torch and the nimbus.

The 7th and highest degree was that of the Pater or Father. He was the representative of Mithras. The Father therefore wore the same outfit as Mithras. He was adorned with the soft Phrygian cap, which originates from Persia and plays an important part in this cult. He was under the protection of Saturn. He was a magus, learned in astrology, the High Priest, the Leader of the rite. If we make a survey of these seven degrees and try to find a climax in the development, we get the following:

1st degree:  Raven : the One called by the Supreme Being

2nd degree: Bride: the One, accepted for a union for life by the Supreme Being

3rd degree: Soldier: the Fighter for the Supreme Being

4th degree: Lion: the Leader in the fight for the Supreme Being

5th degree: Persian : the One knowing of the Supreme Being

6th degree: Sun-runner: the Guide, establishing the direct connection with the Supreme Being

7th degree: Father:  symbol of the Supreme Being itself

Mithracism and Christianity

It took a very long time before Mithracism was overruled by Christianity. Even after the emperor Constantine's decree of Milan (303 A.D.: acceptance of Christianity as an official religion), Mithracism flourished all over the empire. But when Christianity became the State Religion of the Roman Empire, followers of other relions and cults were chased and banned from society. They had to give up their old religious practice, or be stigmatized for the rest of their lives. When we compare Mithracism to Christianity, Mithracism had no coordinating organization which could cluster all forces against possible enemies of their cult. Christianity did have this co-ordinating organization, as it had taken over the organization and structure of the old Roman State Religion. The highest power in this organization, the Pope, had derived his title from that of the High Priest in the service of Jupiter, Pontifex Maximus. The Mithraeic organization stopped outside the fraternity, the sole and only important nucleus of Mithracism, which was fully autonomous. Religiously-philosophically spoken, no other organization outside the fraternity was needed. Mithracism had always been popular; the members of the initiatic cult always helped eachother when needed. The movement had flourished under the membership of important persons in the empire, such as the emperor himself. The main goal of Mithracism as an organization was to provide a place and means for personal mystic experience. To Mithraeans, spiritual development and perfection was the issue, not world-power or the bringing of a soul-saving kingdom on earth. Therefore, Christian groups and churches were as big as possible and Mithraeic fraternities were small and had criteria for acceptance into their fraternities.

Christianity, in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D., was not choosy on new followers at all. Officially, Christianity had no exoteric wing, i.e. all new members were initiated in the mysteries through baptism. The new members had to make a vow not to honour any other gods and to try to live like Jesus had done. There were teachings, but the deepness of them was strongly influenced by the general level of the group or church congregation that was to be tought. A Mithraean had to do a lot of introspection and study to proceed through the seven stages of initiation, the Christian was not necessarily forced to do so. So, to put it a bit harsh, it was, to a lot of people, easier to be member of a Christian congregation than of a Mithraeic fraternity. When Christianity was normal, because of being the one and only accepted religion, there may have been lots of people, who called themselves Christians after being baptized, but didn't know for a long time, what they were actually dealing with.

Bibliography:

Campbell, L.A., Mithraic Iconography and Ideology, Leiden, 1968

Cumont, F., Les Mystères de Mithras, Bruxelles, 1902

Dieterich, A., Eine Mithrasliturgie, 1910

Geden, A.S., Select Passages Illustrating Mithraism, New York/Toronto, 1925

Laeuchli, S., Mithraism in Ostia, Northwestern University Press, 1967

Lommel, H., Mithra und das Stieropfer, Paideuma III, 207 u.w., 1949

Passauer, F., Die Saalburg und der Mithrascult, Frankfurt am Main, 1908

Snijders, C.J., De Mithrascultus, Den Haag (in 4 languages), 1964

Ulansey, D., The Origins of Mithraic Mysteries, Oxford University Press, 1991

Vermaseren, M.J., De Mithrasdienst in Rome, Nijmegen, 1951

Vermaseren, M.J., Mithras, de geheimzinnige god, Amsterdam/Brussel, 1959

Mithras on the Internet:

http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.htm

http://eawc.evansville.edu/essays?mithaism.htm

http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/mithras/frames.htm (with stunning 3D-show of the inside of a Mithraeum!)

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On 8 Cuauhtli, 14 Teotleco, the Phoenix will be arriving again to the ports of Machu Picchu. This means there will be lots of tourists around, looking for souvenirs, things to eat, things to wear - an ideal oppourtunity for all citizens of Machu Piccu to make a modest profit by tendering their wares! Reserve your place on time, limited trading space available. The first 8 applicants will receive a premier location in the middle of the square. Reservations to be sent to: Dinnsear Ayaatl Tupac (Market Master) within 14 days of publication, please, to ensure preferential treatment

A new group, Eternal Gods, Eternal Lives has been formed in Egypt and is under construction. This roleplaying group will concentrate on the Netjeru, gods and goddesses of Egypt. Join before the playing starts!